环境学 问答题 部分答案

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1. what are two means of science?

P41 science is an attempt to discover order in nature and use that knowledge to make predictions about what is likely to happen in nature.

Name three applications of science. （未找到）

Describe the scientific method. P42 They are ways scientists gather data and formulate and text scientific hypotheses, models, theories, and laws. For example of applying the scientific method: observation, question, hypothesis, test the hypothesis, experiment, result, conclusion, new hypothesis, experiment, results, conclusion.

What needs to occur before a researcher’s results are published? （未找到）

Why is important? （未找到）

2. Describe the benefits and costs of damming rivers.

P318-319 the main purpose is to capture and store runoff and release it as needed for controlling floods,producing bydroelectric power ,and supplying water for irrigation and for towns and cities.reservoirs also provide recreational activities such as swimming,fishing,and boating.some bad new is that a series of dams can

reduce downstream flow to a trickle and prevent it from reaching the sea as a part of the hydrologic cycle. What particular environmental, health, and social concerns has China’s Three Gorges Dam and its reservoirs raised?P320 1.generate almost 10% of china’s electricity for use by industries and about 150 million people. 2.help china reduce its dependence on coal,which causes severe air pollution and releases enormous of greenhouse gas carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. 3.hold back the Yangtze rivier’s floodwaters,which have killed more than 500,000people duringthe past 100years including 4,000people in 1998. 4.reduce flooding and silting of the river by eroded soil.

3. What is environmental science? Study of how we and other species interact with one another and with the nonliving environment (matter and energy). It is a physical and social science that integrates knowledge from a wide range of disciplines, including physics, chemistry, biology (especially ecology), geology, geography, resource technology and engineering, resource conservation and management, demography (the study of population dynamics), economics, politics, sociology, psychology, and ethics

Name several disciplines involved in environmental science.归纳法与演绎法

Give examples of three major environmental problems in the world today, along with their causes.未找到

4. About how thick is the atmosphere? P419 48KM.

Name one characteristics of troposphere and stratosphere.p419

troposphere: extends noly about 17kilometeres above sea level at the equator and about 8kilmeter boer the poles. stratosphere : extends from about 17to 48kilmeters ,its volume of water vapor is about 1/1000 as much ,and its concentration of ozone is much higher.How and why is stratospheric ozone beneficial for people, and tropospheric ozone harmful? P419 stratosphere ozone is produced when some of the oxygen molecules there interact with UV radiation emitted by the sun .prevents much of the oxygen in the troposphere from being converted to photochemical ozone ,a harmful air pollutant. What is photochemical smog, and how does it form?p423 photochemical smog is mixture of primary and secondary pollutants fromed under the influence of sunlight .from :p423-424化学方程式

5. Describe four unique properties of water. P313 1.water exists as a liquid over a wide termperature range 2.unlike most liquids ,water expands when it freezes.3.it takes a lot of heat to evaporate liquid water .4.liquid water can dissolve a variety of compounds .Name three major types of water pollutants, and provide an example of each. P484 表格19-1.Why do some sciences consider groundwater

pollution

a

greater

problem

than

surface

water

pollution?P493when groundwater becomes contaminated,it cannot cleanse itself of degradable wastes as flowing surface water does .it take hundreds to thousands of years for contaminated groundwater to cleanse itself of degradable water.

6. In the demographic transition model, describe the birth and death rates of the pre-industrial stage and the industrial stage? How does this model

explain the increase in population growth rates in recent centuries and the decrease in population growth rates recent decades?

Preindustrial stage, when there is little population growth because harsh living conditions lead to both a high birth rate (to compensate for high infant mortality ) and a high death rate .

Industrial stage ,when the birth rate drops and eventually approaches the death rate as industrialization and modernization become widespread , population growth continues, but at a slower and perhaps fluctuating rate ,depending on economics conditions . Most developed countries are now in this third stage and a few developing countries are entering this stage .

在最近几个世纪，人口增长快，是因为工业化使粮食供应和医疗措施变好，使死亡率下降，但出生率仍然很高；但在最近几年，死亡率下降，出生率也相应下降导致人口增长慢

7 What is a system? Distinguish among the inputs ,flows or throughputs, stores, and outputs of a system.

.(1) A system is a set of component function and interact in some regular and theoretically predictable manner and can be isolated for the purpose of observation and study.

(2) Inputs of things such as matter energy or information within the system at

at certain rates .

(3)flows or throughputs, of matter, energy, or information within the system at certain rates.

(4) Stores, within a system where energy, matter, or information can accumulate for various lengths of time before being released.

(5) Outputs of certain forms of matter, energy, or information that flow out of the system into sinks in the environment.

8. Describe the three types of weathering that may contribute to the process of soil formation. Name the five primary factors thought to influence soil formation and describe one effect of each.

(1) Mechanical weathering, in which a large rock mass is broken into smaller fragments of the original material similar to the results you would get by using a ham-mer to break a rock into small fragments, the most important agent of mechanical weathering is frost wedging, in which water collects in pores and cracks of rock, expands upon freezing, and splits off pieces of the rock.

(2) Chemical weathering, in which one or more chemical reactions decompose a mass of rock, most chemical weathering, involves a reaction of rock material with oxygen, carbon dioxide, and moisture in the atmosphere and the ground.

(3) 生物风化是一些生物与母质发生物理和化学变化而形成的，例如，gender生长会使岩石裂缝变宽或是一些有机酸溶解一些矿物质。

影响土壤形成的五个因素是：气候，生物，地势（地形高低程度），母质和时间

高温和潮湿的气候会促进物理风化

当地植被的差异性会改变有机物质的输入量

越陡的坡导致侵蚀的发生率越高

由石灰石风化形成的土壤不同于花岗岩风化形成的土壤

最近形成的土壤不会像先前形成的土壤那样好

9．Describe the reasons why some people support the development of genetically modified organisms and some oppose the genetically modified crops?

Support: the genetically modified org，anisms is seen as a potentially sustainable way to solve world food problems.通过转基因生物可以制造出一些抗虫性植物，从而减少杀虫剂的用量，还可以使一些植物的营养价值得到提高，比如增加水稻中维他命的含量。

Oppose: (1) we know far too little about the potential harm and widespread use of such crops to human health and ecosystems.

(2) genetically modified organisms cannot be recalled if they cause harmful genetic and ecological effects.

10. Why are fossil fuels our most prevalent sources of energy today? Why are they considered nonrenewable sources of energy? What are some of the effects of fossil fuels emissions?

（1）reason：化石燃料的燃烧效率高，便于运输和储存，且天然气是一种清洁燃料，煤矿量的含量最多。

（2）被认为是不可再生能源是因为：它们被提取和消耗的速度远远大于它们自然形成的速度

（3）化石燃料可以释放二氧化硫，二氧化碳，氮氧化物，这些物质会造成烟雾，酸沉降，全球气候变化和各种不同的健康问题，一些科学家基于先前的经验结果和小规模的可控制的研究，而担心这些释放物对植被和野生生物的破坏。

11. distinguish between high-quality matter and low-quality matter，and give an example of each? What is energy efficiency?

Key: ◆High-quality energy is concentrated and can perform much useful work. e.g. electricity.

◆Low-quality energy is dispersed and has little ability to do useful work. e.g. heat dispersed in the moving molecules of a large amount of matter so that its

temperature is low. Ocean energy

◆ Energy efficiency: or energy productivity, is a measurement of how much useful work is accomplished by a particular input of energy into a system.

12. What is pollution? Distinguish between point sources and nonpoint sources of pollution。List three types of harm caused by pollution。

Key: ◆ Any addition to air, water, soil, or food that threatens the health, survival, or activities of humans or other living organisms is called pollution.

◆Point sources: where pollutants come from single, identifiable sources.

◆Nonpoint sources: where pollutants come from dispersed(and often difficult to identify) sources .

Three types: ◆Disruption of life-support systems for humans and other species.

◆Damage to wildlife, human health, and property

◆Nuisances such as noise and unpleasant smells, tastes, and sights

13. Distinguish between inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning , and give an example of each.

Key: Inductive reasoning involves using specific observations and measurements to arrive at a general conclusion or hypothesis. For example:

◆Through observation we might use inductive reasoning to conclude that all objects fall to the earth’s surface when dropped. But we cannot be absolutely

sure someone will drop an object that does not fall to the earth’s surface. When scientists say that something has been proved or established by inductive reasoning, they do not mean it is absolutely true but that a very high probability or degree of certainty exists that it is true.

Deductive reasoning involves using logic to arrive at a specific conclusion based on a generalization or premise. For example:

◆Generalization or premise: All birds have feathers/

Examples: Eagles are birds.

Deductive conclusion: All eagles have feathers.

This conclusion of this syllogism (a series of logically connected statements) is valid as long as the premise is correct, and we do not use faulty logic to arrive at the conclusion.

14. Distinguish between the first law of thermodynamics and the second law of thermodynamics, and give an example of each law in action. Use the second law

of thermodynamics to explain why energy cannot be recycled.

Key: No.1 : In all physical and chemical change, energy is neither created or destroyed, but it may be converted from one form to another. e.g.

◆scientists observed millions of physical and chemical changes, but they have never been able to detect the creation or destruction of any energy(except in nuclear changes)

No. 2 : When energy is changed from one form to another, some of the useful energy is always degraded to lower quality, more dispersed, less useful energy. e,g.

◆when electrical energy flows through filament wires in an incandescent light bulb, it is changed into about 5% useful light and 95% low-quality heat that flows into the environment. In other word, this so-called light bulb is really a heat bulb.

◆we can heat air or water at a low temperature and upgrade it to high-quality energy, but the second law of thermodynamics tells us that it will take more high-quality energy to do this than we get in return.

15. What's a feedback loop? Distinguish between a positive feedback loop and a negative feedback loop, and give an example of each.

Key: A feedback loop occurs when an output of matter, energy, or information is fed back into the system as an input that changes the system.

A positive feedback loop in which a change in a certain direction provides information that causes a system to change further in the same direction. For example:

◆ Depositing money in a bank at compound interest and leaving it there. In this case, the interest increases the balance, which through a positive feedback loop leads to more interest and an even higher balance.

A negative feedback loop in which one change leads to a lessening of that change. For example:

◆ Recycling aluminum cans involves melting aluminum and feeding it back into an economic system to make new aluminum products.

15. What’s a feedback loop? Distinguish between a positive feedback loop and a negative feedback loop, and give an example of each.

(1)A feedback loop occurs when an output of matter, energy or information is fed back into the system as an input that changes the system.

Positive feedback: A positive feedback loop in which a change in a certain direction provides information that causes a system to change further in the same direction.

Example: An example involves depositing money in a bank at compound

interest and leaving it there. In this case, the interest increases the balance which through a positive feedback loop leads to more interest and even higher balance.

Negative feedback: A negative feedback loop in which one change leads to a lessening of that change.

Example: recycling aluminum cans involves melting aluminum and feeding it back into an economic system to make a new aluminum product.

16. Distinguish between asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction. What are the disadvantages and advantages of sexual reproduction? What is coevolution, and what is it important?

Asexual reproduction is common in species such as bacteria with only one cell which divides to produce two identical that are clones or replicas of the original cell

Sexual reproduction occurs in organisms that produce offspring by combining sex cells or gametes (such as ovum and sperm) from both parents

Disadvantages and advantages: sexual reproduction usually gives the species a greater chance of survival under changing environmental conditions than the genetic clones produced by asexual but it often has a high cost.

Coevolution: interaction between species also can result in microevolution in

ach of their population According to this hypothesis, when population of two different species interacts can lead to change in the gene pool of the other species. This process is called coevolution.

17. What percentage of the water used by people throughout the world is wasted?

List four benefits of conserving water .List three major cause of water waste.

Answer：

1.65%-70%

2. a. Decrease the burden on wastewater plants.

b. Reduce the need for expensive dams and water transfer projects that destroy wildlife habits and displace people.

c. Slow depletion of groundwater aquifers.

d. Some energy and money.

3. A. One is water subsidy policies.

b. A second cause of water waste is water laws.

c. Fragmented watershed management.

18. What is extinction？ List three factors that have affected the earth’s long-term patterns of speciation and extinction.

(1) Extinction is species disappear

(2) a. large-scale movements of the continents over million of years.

b. gradual climate change caused by continental drift and slight shifts in the earth’s orbit around the sun .

c. rapid climate change caused by catastrophic events (such as large volcanic eruptions, huge meteorites and asteroids crashing into the earth and release of large amounts of methane trapped beneath the ocean floor).

19.What are the disadvantages and advantages of trade-able pollution and resource-use rights to reduce pollution and resource waste?

Advantages: permit holder not using their entire allocation can

(1)Use it as a credit against future expansion. (2) use it in another part of their operation ,or (3)sell it to other companies.

(2)Tradable rights can also be established among countries to help(1)preserver biodiversity and (2)reduce emission of greenhouse ages and

other pollutants with harmful regional (or global) effects.

Disadvantages ：（1）allows the wealthiest companies to continue polluting and there by excludes smaller companies from the market.(2)tends to concentrate pollutants at the dirtiest plants and thus jeopardizes the health of people downwind or downstream from the plant .(3)creates an incentive for fraud because most pollution control regulations are based on self-reporting of pollution outputs ,and government monitoring and enforcement of such outputs are inadequate.(4)does not work unless the limits on pollution or resource use are set low encourage innovation .(5)has no built-in incentives to continue reducing overall pollution and resource use unless the system requires gradual in the total pollution or resource allowed (which is rarely the case).

20. What does the study of Ethics encompasses? What is Environmental ethics? Describe the philosophical perspectives of Anthropocentrism, Biocentrism and Ecocentrism. Differentiate between the preservation ethic and the conservation ethic.

1. Ethics encompasses the study of the actions that a responsible individual should choose the values that an honorable individual should espouse, and the character that a virtuous individual should have.

2.环境伦理学是研究人类在生存发展过程中，人类个体与自然环境系统和社会环境(

人类群体）系统，及社会环境系统与自然环境系统之间的伦理道德的行为关系.

3. Anthropocentrism believe that a wild species, a biotic community ecosystem

, biodiversity, or the biosphere has value only because of its usefulness to us .According to it (1) humans have intrinsic. (2) the rest of nature has instrumental value and (3) we are in charge of earth.

4. Biocentrism believes that these forms are valuable simple because they exit, independently of their use to human beings. According to it (1).all species and ecosystem and the biosphere have both intrinsic and instrumental value (2).we are one of species.3.we have an ethical responsibility not to impair the long-term sustainability and adaptability of the earth's natural system for all life

5. Ecocentrism believe that we have and ethical responsibility not to degrade the earth's system life forms ,and life-support system for this and future generation of humans and other form of life .According to it ,we are part of ,not apart from ,the community of life and the ecological process that sustain all life .

6. the conservation ethics stresses that rapid and uncontrolled growth in population and economy is self-defeating in the long run and try to balance the development and preservation, while the preservation ethic stress that all forms of life have an inherent right to exist